Early cultivation of macaronesian plants in three european botanic gardens

              Rev. Acad. Canar. Cicnc, XXIII (Num. 3), 1 13-143 (201 1) (publicado en abril de 2012)
EARLY CULTIVATION OF MACARONESIAN PLANTS
IN THREE EUROPEAN BOTANIC GARDENS
J. Francisco-Ortega' -, A. Santos-Guerra\ L. Sanchez-Pinto\ & M. Maunder' -
Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, University Park, Miami, FL 33199, U.S.A.
e-mail: ortegajrafiu.edu (correspondence)
^Center for Tropical Plant Conservation, Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden
1 1935 Old Cutler Road. Coral Gables (Miami), FL 33 156, U.S.A.
^ Unidad de Botanica, Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias
Calle Retama, num. 2, Puerto de la Cruz, 38400 Tenerife. Spain
* Museo de la Naturaleza y el Hombre, Calle Fuente Morales, num. 2
Santa Cruz de Tenerife, 38003 Tenerife, Spain
ABSTRACT
The Chelsea Physic Garden (London) (established in 1673), the Botanic Garden of
Amsterdam (established in 1682), and the Clifford's Hartekamp Gardens (the Netherlands, es-tablished
in 1 709 by George Clifford II) were among the most important pre-Linnaean botanic
gardens in Europe and were famous because of their living collections of exotic plants. There
is relatively extensive documentation of what plant material was grown in these botanic gar-dens
prior to Linnaeus establishing the now generally accepted binomial system for naming
plants. A study of these documents pertinent to species originally from the Macaronesian Is-lands
is presented as a contribution to the history of European plant collections and the in-troduction
of new exotics to European horticulture. A total of 29 taxa from the region w ere
cultivated in at least one of these gardens between 1689 and 1751. Two of them are non-na-tive
species from the New World including one weed and the common chili pepper. Three na-tive
Macaronesian species also occur on the mainland. The rest of the taxa are endemics in at
least one of the Macaronesian islands. It is likely that most of this material was introduced into
European gardens by merchants and occasional travelers who visited the islands rather than
professional plant collectors or botanists. Our study highlights the role of these early botanic
gardens in the introduction of plants in Europe.
Key words: History of botany, Canary Islands, Madeira, Azores, Cape Verde, plant ex-ploration.
RESUMEN
El "Chelsea Physic Garden" de Londres (fundado en 1673), el Jardin Botanico de Ams-terdam
(fundado en 1682), y el Jardin de Clifford de Hartekamp (localizado en Holanda y
fundado en 1709 por Geoge Clifford II) se encuentran entre los principales jardines pre-lin-neanos
de Europa. Los mismos fueron famosos por sus colecciones de plantas foraneas. Para
113
estos jardines existe relativamente amplia documentacion sobre el material que se cultiva en
los mismos con anterioridad al establecimiento del sistema de clasificacion binomial de Lin-neo.
Se presenta un estudio de esta documentacion referente a especies de las islas macaro-nesicas.
Estas colecciones nos ayudan a entender la historia de las colecciones de los jardines
europeos y de la introduccion de especies aloctonas en el desarrollo de la horticultura del con-tinente.
Un total de 29 taxa de esta region se cultivaron en al menos uno de estos jardines bo-tanicos
entre 1689 y 1751. Dos de estas especies son del Nuevo Mundo, incluyendo una
mala hierba y el pimiento comun. Tres de estas especies son nativas en la Macaronesia, pero
tambien se encuentran en el continente. El resto de las especies son endemismos de al menos
una de las islas macaronesicas. Es probable que la mayor parte de este material se introduce
en estos jardines por comerciantes y visitantes que de forma ocasional visitan las islas y no
por colectores de plantas o botanicos profesionales. El estudio destaca el papel jugado por
los jardines botanicos mas antiguos en las introducciones tempranas de plantas en la socie-dad
europea.
Palabras claves: Historia de la botanica, Canarias, Madeira, Azores, Cabo Verde, ex-ploracion
vegetal.
"Cada uno avanzaba embargado en aquella soledad sin margenes, en
aquel silencio verde y bianco, los arboles, las grandes enredaderas, el
humus depositado por centenares de anos, los troncos semi-derribados
que de pronto eran una barrera mas en nuestra marcha. Todo era a la vez
una naturaleza deslumbradora y secreta y a la vez una creciente ame-naza
de frio, nieve, persecucion. Todo se mezclaba: la soledad, el peli-gro,
el silencio y la urgencia de mi mision."
Pablo Neruda, Hacia la Ciudad Esplendida, 1971.
"Each of us made his way forward filled with this limitless solitude,
with the green and white silence of trees and huge trailing plants and
layers of soil laid down over centuries, among half-fallen tree trunks
which suddenly appeared as fresh obstacles to bar our progress. We were
in a dazzling and secret world of nature which at the same time was a
growing menace of cold, snow and persecution. Everything became one:
the solitude, the danger, the silence, and the urgency of my mission."
Pablo Neruda, Towards the Splendid City, 1971.
1. INTRODUCTION
The publication of Species Plantarum by Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) in 1753 (LIN-NAEUS
[42]) represented a major turning point in the history of plant systematics. This work
provided a widely accepted system to classify organisms based on binomial nomenclature.
Prior to 1753 botanical studies were important in Europe, mostly because of the increasing rel-evance
of science and plant exploration during the "Age of Enlightenment" (GROVE [29]).
By the middle of the 1 8* century there were several botanic gardens in Italy, France, Ger-many,
the Netherlands, Spain, and the United Kingdom (PLUCKNETT et al. [61]; PUERTO
SARMIENTO [63]). Some of these botanic gardens were affiliated to governmental or aca-demic
organizations but others were owned by wealthy individuals with a primary interest in
114
growing exotic plants. Indeed, between 1735 and 1737 Carolus Linnaeus himself worked as
the botanical curator of the private gardens of George Clifford III (1685-1780) located at
Hartekamp, in Heemstede (the Netherlands) (JARVIS [40]; Figure 1 ). The gardens were for-mally
established in 1709 when the state was purchased by George ClitTord II (WIJNANDS
& HENIGER [93]).
Linnaeus took up this appointment by Clifford shortly after obtaining his Degree in
Medicine from the University of Hardewijk (also in the Netherlands). ClitTord was a Direc-tor
of the Dutch East Indian Company (JARVIS [40]) and therefore had access to many plants
and animals from South Africa. Asia and elsewhere thanks to the powerful Dutch trade routes
Dc Hor<tTEr.DE
DE HaRTECAMP.
; )
IVli.
M
i^tsamii
Figure 1. Map of Clifford's Hartekamp Gardens as it appears between 1 735 and 1 760. This is a copy made by L.A.
Springer from the original map that was made by George Lodewich Uhl (WIJNANDS & HENIGER [93]). The orig-inal
map is in poor conditions and it is located at the .A.rchi\ es of the Pro\ ince of Noord-HoUand (http: www.beeld-bank.
noord-hollandsarchiefnLbeeldbank). By courtesy of the library of Wageningen University.
115
Figure 2.- Copperplate engraving of Linnaeus as the frontispiece of Hortus Cliffortiamis (LINNAEUS [41 ]). The il-lustration
shows Linnaeus as the young Apollo (bearing a flamed torch on his left hand), bringing knowledge against
ignorance (see CALLMER & GERTZ [7] for an interpretation of this illustration). By courtesy of the library of
Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden.
116
Campanv l a foliis haftatis dentatis, caule determinate foliofb. Hort.CUff.Csfp.lo.
Rnmulu! cum F.vrt. hoha of^Jlta fun:.
n. D. Lmbsi ^«: J. Wamcelaak ffCjt,
Figure 3.- Copperplate engraving of Canarina [as Campanula] canahensis made by Georg Dionysius Ehret and en-graved
by Jan Wandelaar. Depicted in Hortus Cliffortiamis (LINNAEUS [41]). By courtesy of the librar\- of Fairchild
Tropical Botanic Garden.
in the tropics. These gardens were part of the state symboHsm, a statement of increasing in-ternational
power, and a focal point for the developing sciences of natural history and taxon-omy
(SCHAMA [75]; SCOTT & HEWETT [77]). Many of the species tlrst given binomial
names by Linnaeus in Species Plantarum (including 2 1 Macaronesian plants) were based on
the living collections that he studied while at the Hartekamp. As a result of his near three-year
tenure (1735-1737) in this botanic garden, LINNAEUS [41] produced a remarkable 502 page
catalogue with descriptions and engravings of its living collections which has been considered
as one his masterpieces (Figure 2) (STEARN [82]). This work feamred a plate of the Canarian
Island endemic Canarina [as Campanula] canahensis made by Georg Dionysius Ehret ( 1 707-
1770) and engraved by Jan Wandelaar (1690-1759) (Figure 3).
117
^:^.
"z^-
Figure 4.- Map of the Chelsea Physic Garden made by John Haynes (ca. 1706-ca. 1770) in 1751. Notice the statue
of Sir Hans Sloane located in the center of the garden (see Figure 5). By courtesy of the Royal Society.
In previous studies we have shown that, besides Clifford's Hartekamp Gardens, sev-eral
other European gardens grew plants from the Macaronesian Islands before 1753 (SAN-TOS-
GUERRA [72]; FRANCISCO-ORTEGA et al [27-28]). Among them there were the
Chelsea Physic Garden (located in London) and the Botanic Garden ofAmsterdam (also cur-
118
Figure 5.- Statue of Sir Hans Sloane located on the central courtyard of Chelsea Physic Garden. This is replicate of
the original statue as it was made by John Michael Rysbrack (1694-1770) in 1737 and placed on this site. The orig-inal
statue has been located at the British Museum since 1983 (MINTER [45]). Photo credit: Charlie Hopkinson.
rently known as the Hortiis Botanicus Amsterdam, but known in the 1
8'*" century as Hortus
Medicus Amstelodamensis).
The Chelsea Physic Garden was founded in 1673 by the Worshipful Society ofApothe-caries
of London as the "Aphotecaries' Garden" on the banks of the River Thames (MINTER
[45]) (Figure 4). It is the second oldest botanic garden of Britain, and it was established only
40 years after the foundation of the University of Oxford Botanic Garden (year 1621, HILL
[36]). However, it was not until 1712 that the Chelsea Physic Garden was consolidated as an
institution thanks to a generous gift by Sir Hans Sloane (1660-1753) that allowed for the pur-chase
of the land where the garden is still located (Figure 5) (MINTER [45]). As part of the
arrangements made by Sloane to buy this property, every year the Chelsea Physic Garden was
required to send 50 herbarium specimens of different species prepared from its living collec-tions
to the Royal Society. In accordance with Sloane's stipulation, 1,600 herbarium specimens
119
/
yiz.
MJ^.u//:( fSf
WEK OF COW-EYAWE lO Tllfc AHOTHtf AKIf.S" COTIPANV; 1721*,
Figure 6.- Specimen ofJasminum azohcum (Madeiran endemic) from the living collections of Chelsea Physic Gar-den
that was sent from this botanic garden to the Royal Society in 1733 (RAND [65]). By courtesy of the Natural
History Museum of London.
were received by the Royal Society between 1722 and 1753 (STUNGO [83]). These speci-mens
now form part of the herbarium of the Natural History Museum in London (BM) (Fig-ure
6). The ''Philosophical Transactions'" of the Royal Society regularly published articles
listing the specimens that were received annually from Chelsea Physic Garden. In eight of
these articles (MILLER [46-47]; RAND [65-67]; SLOANE & RAND [79]; WILMER [95-
96]) Macaronesian specimens are listed.
120
Early records for material cultivated in this garden are found in a manuscript located
in the Sloane's Collection of the British Library (reference: MS 3370 ft'. 14-19). This docu-ment
was signed by James Petiver (see below), Simons Andrews, Thomas Wycks, and an un-known
fourth author with an illegible signature. This manuscript has a list of plants that were
grown in Chelsea Physic Garden by November
1706. Additional records for the early 18'^ century
were pro\ ided in seven accounts published by the
famous naturalist James Petiver (ca. 1658-1718)
(PETIVER [54-60]).
In addition, between 1730 and 1739 three
catalogues listing the material grown in this botanic
garden were published by MILLER [48] and
RAND [64, 68]. Most of the references for Mac-aronesian
plants cultivated at this botanic garden
were provided by Isaac Rand (1674-1743) (Figure
7) who was the first official Director of the Chelsea
Physic Garden (HUNTING [37]).
The Hortiis Medicus Amstelodamensis was
founded in its present location in 1682 (in the Plan-tage
District) (Figure 8). However, several "med-
Figure 7.- Portrait of Isaac Rand, attributed to ., , „ -^i-a .j r i^-)o.
,r r-,1 .,-7n, ,-7c-7x/r c. u a y icalsardcns existed in Amsterdam from 1638 at
John Ellys ( 1 70 1 - 1 757) (for further details see
HUNTING [36]). By courtesy of the Workship- different Sites (WIJNANDS [91-92]; WIJNANDS
ful Society of Apothecaries of London. et al. [94]). This is the fourth oldest botanic garden
Figure 8.- Map of the Amsterdam Botanic Garden by 1685 as published by C. COMMELIN [9]. By courtesy of the
University ofAmsterdam Library Special Collections.
121
Figure 9.- Portrait of Jan Commelin made by Gerard Hoet (1648-1733). Unknown date between 1675 and 1700. By
courtesy of Amsterdam Museum.
in the Netherlands. The botanic gardens of the universities of Leiden, Utrecht, and Groningen
were founded in 1590, 1639, and 1642 respectively (VEENDORP & BAAS BECKING [88];
WIJNANDS [91-92]).
Between 1646 and 1724, nine catalogues listing material found in the living collections
of the Hortus Medicus Amstelodamensis were published, mostly by Jan Commelin (1629-
1692) and his nephew Caspar Commelin (7-1731) (Figures 9-10) (C. COMMELIN [10-11];
J. COMMELIN [14-18]; CORNELII [19]; SNIPPENDAEL [80]). The three catalogues pub-lished
in 1697, 1701, and 1706 depicted plants cultivated in this garden (C. COMMELIN
[11]; J. COMMELIN [15-16]) and the two catalogues published in 1703 and 1706 were re-
122
Figure 10.- Painting made by Comelis Troost ( 1697-1 750) in 1 724 ponraying the "Impeaor of Coiiegiiim Medicum".
Caspar Commelin (the second from right) is shown with his right hand on a copy of the third edition of his catalogue
of plants grown at Hortus Medicus Amstelodamemis. By courtesy of Amsterdam Museum.
issued in 1715 (C. COMMELIN [12. 13]). In addition. 420 watercolors of plants growing in
this garden were produced during this time (WIJNANDS [91]). They fomi what is known as
the Moninckx Atlas (located at University of Amsterdam Library Special Collections), in ref-erence
to Jan Moninckx (7-1714) and Maria Moninckx (7-1757). who were the main artists
producing these paintings (WIJNANDS [91]). These watercolors are available online at the
website of the University of Amsterdam Library (http://www.uba.uva.nl digital_produc-tioncentre
home.cfm). In a previous study (FRANCISCO-ORTEGA et al. [28]). we repro-duced
two of the watercolors from the Moninckx Atlas (for the Canarian endemics Aeoniiim
canariense and Isoplexis canatiensis). In this study we present three additional watercolors
of Canar\' Island endemics {Conrolviilus canariensis. Jiisticia hvssopifolia, and Teline ca-nariensis:
Figures 11-13) from this "botanical atlas.'*
In this paper our research concerning early culti\ation of Macaronesian plants in Eu-rope
focuses on these three botanic gardens because: ( 1 ) there are se\ eral archi\ al documents
and published works catalogues with details of material found in their living collections. (2)
there are herbarium specimens for many of the species that were cultivated in Chelsea Physic
Garden and Clifford's Hartekamp Gardens, and (3) several of the published catalogues of the
Botanic Garden of Amsterdam and of the Moninckx Atlas have extraordinar\ illustrations of
the species that were grow n in this botanic garden.
123
Figure 11.- Watercolor of Convolvulus canariensis located at the Moninckx Atlas (vol. 3, t. 49) made Jan Moninckx.
Unknown date between 1686 and 1700. By courtesy of the University ofAmsterdam Library Special Collections.
124
Figure 12.- W'atercolor of Tcline canariensis located at the Moninckx Atlas (\ol. 3. t. 50) made b> Maria Moninckx.
Unknown date between 1686 and 1699. B\ courtes\ of the University of Amsterdam Librar> Special Collections.
125
Figure 13.- Watercolor ofJusticia hyssopifolia located at the Moninckx Atlas (vol. 8, t. 38) made Maria Moninckx.
Unknown date between 1686 and 1706. By courtesy of the University ofAmsterdam Library Special Collections.
126
2. RECORDS OF LIVING COLLECTIONS OF MACARONESIAN PLANTS
In this section Macaronesian species grown in at least one of the three gardens are
listed alphabetically (taxonomy and nomenclature follow ACEBES GINOVES et al. [1].
JARDIM & MENEZES DE SEQUEIRA [39], SANCHEZ-PINTO et al. [71]. SILVA et al.
[78], THE ANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY GROUP [84], and UPSON & ANDREWS [86]).
The taxonomic identity is followed by details of the distribution and status of the taxon
in question [AZO, endemic to Azores, CAN, endemic to the Canary Islands; CAP, endemic
to Cape Verde; CUL, cultivated; INT, human-introduced to the Macaronesian islands (archi-pelagos
are listed inside parenthesis); MAC, endemic to Macaronesia (archipelagos are listed
inside parenthesis); MAD, endemic to Madeira; NAT, native to Macaronesia (archipelagos
are listed inside parenthesis)]. For each taxon and botanic garden (coded as "Amsterdam" for
the Botanic Garden of Amsterdam, "Chelsea" for the Chelsea Physic Garden, and "Clif-ford"
for the Clifford's Hartekamp Gardens) we provide at least the first three words of the
polynomial description as it is stated in the appropriated work. We also pro\ide the page num-bers
of the works where the polynomial and or the illustrations are located. For those speci-mens
sent from the Chelsea Physic Garden to the Royal Society we pro\ ide their \oucher
number as recorded at BM. The "Notes" entry gives additional infomiation particularly per-tinent
to cultivation of these species in other gardens as referred in the relevant catalogues of
these botanic gardens and other works (i.e., AITON [2-4]; HALLIWELL [3 1 ]; HARVEY [32];
LINNAEUS [41-44], MILLER [51]; PLUKENET [62]). We were unable to locate herbarium
specimens or illustrations referring to these additional records for other gardens (except for
those provided by PLUKENET [62]); therefore further research is needed to validate this in-formation.
Taxonomic identifications for the material cultiv ated in the three botanic gardens were
based on available herbarium specimens and illustrations. When these sources were not a\ ail-able
our identifications relied on the polynomial descriptions. Se\ eral of these polynomials de-scriptions
refer to illustrations of Macaronesian plants made by Leonard Plukenet
(1 642- 1 706), who was superintendent of the Royal Gardens of Hampton Court (England).
Taxonomic identifications for Macaronesian taxa found in the w orks of this pre-Linnaean
botanist were reviewed by FRANCISCO-ORTEGA et al. [25]
It is noteworthy that among the plants cultivated at Clifford's Hartekamp Gardens
(LINNAEUS [41]) several of them were reported as occurring both in the Macaronesian arch-ipelagos
and other regions [e.g.. Cassia fistula L. (Fabaceae), Foeniculiim viilgare L. (Api-aceae),
Saccharum officinariim L (Poaceae)]; however, we are not certain if the material grow n
at this garden came from Macaronesia or not. We have therefore excluded these plants from
our list, and we have included only those taxa that LINNAEUS [41] reported as exclusively
from the Macaronesian archipelagos or those that are endemic to these islands.
Aeonium canariense (L.) Webb & Berth. (Crassulaceae), CAN
Amsterda.nl Sediim canarinum foliis [...] (J. COMMELIN [16]: 189. t. 95; Moninckx
Atlas 4, t. 45, 46 [unknown artist (1686-1700)]).- Chelsea: 15. Sedum Canarinum: foliis
[...] (RAND [68]: 182).- Clifford: 2. Semperyivum caule infra [...] (LINNAEUS [41]:
179).- Notes: LINNAEUS [43] (based on VAN ROYEN [87]) reported this species for
the Botanic Garden of Leiden by 1 740. AITON [3] (based on manuscripts located in the
Sloane's collection of the British Library [reference: MS 525 and MS 3349]) reported the
species for the gardens of the Duchess of Beaufort by 1699.
127
Aizoon canariense L. (Aizoaceae), NAT
Chelsea: 2. Ficoidea Canariensis, procumbens [...] (RAND [68]: 77).- Clifford: 1.
Aizoon foliis obverse [...] (LINNAEUS [41]: 215).- Notes: LINNAEUS [41] believed
that the accession cultivated at the Clifford's Hartekamp Gardens came from the Canary
Islands. LINNAEUS [41-42] (based on DILLENIUS [22], VOLCKAMERUS [89], and
VAN ROYEN [87]) reported this species for the Botanic Garden of Leiden by 1740 and
for gardens of Nuremberg and Giessen (Germany) by 1700 and 1719. AITON [3] (based
on MILLER [49]) reported the species being cultivated by Philip Miller (1691-1771) by
1731, it is likely that this material was part of the living collections of the Chelsea Physic
Garden.
Argyranthemum frutescens (L.) Sch. Bip. suhsi^. friitescens (Asteraceae), CAN
Chelsea: 65 Canary Dasie Pellitory [...] (PETIVER [55]: 417); 788. Pyrethrum
frutescens Canariense [...] (RAND [67]: 4, BM000810173); 32. Aster Canariensis,
frutescens [...] (RAND [68]: 26).- Clifford: 5. Chrysanthemum fruticosum, foliis [...]
(LINNAEUS [41]: 417, BM000647217).- Notes: LINNAEUS [41-42] (based on MORI-SON
[52], WALTHERUS [90] and VAN ROYEN [87]) listed this taxon for the Oxford
Botanic Garden by 1699, for the gardens ofA. F. Waltherus in Leipzig by 1735 and at the
Botanic Garden of Leiden by 1740. AITON [4] (also based on MORISON [52]) reported
this species for the Oxford Botanic Garden by 1699.
Bosea yervamora L. (Amaranthaceae), CAN
Chelsea: 21. Yerva-mora Hispanorum [...] (RAND [68]: 214).- Clifford: X.Bosia. [/]
Tilia sorte [...] (LINNAEUS [41]: 84).- Notes: LINNAEUS [41] reported the material
cultivated at the Clifford's Hartekamp Gardens from ''Americae insulis'' without referring
to any particular island of the New World. LINNAEUS [41-42] (based on WALTHERUS
[90] and VAN ROYEN [87]) listed this taxon for the gardens ofA. F. Waltherus in Leipzig
by 1735 and for the Botanic Garden of Leiden by 1740. AITON [2] (based on MILLER
[51]) listed the species as cultivated "before 1728" by Philip Miller, it is likely that this ma-terial
was part of the living collections of the Chelsea Physic Garden.
Bystropogon canariensis (L.) L. Her. var. canariensis (Lamiaceae), CAN
Amsterdam: Heliotropium canariense arborescens [...] (J. COMMELIN [16]: 129, t.
65; Moninckx Atlas 4, t. 13 [Jan Moninckx (1686-1699)]).- Chelsea: 5. Heliotropium
Canariense arborescens [...] (RAND [68]: 94).- Clifford: 8. Mentha floribus capitatis
[...] (LINNAEUS [41]: 307, BM000646014; BM000646015).- Notes: J. COMMELE^
[16] stated that this species was known in the Dutch gardens and that the plants cultivated
in the Botanic Garden ofAmsterdam were received (no date reported) from Gerbrand Pan-eras.
LINNAEUS [41] (based on BOERHAAVE [6]) listed this species for the Botanic
Garden of Leiden by 1720. AITON [3] (based on material located the Sloane's Herbarium
at BM [reference: HS 142, f 26]) reported this species for the gardens of the Duchess of
Beaufort by 1714.
Canarina canariensis (L.) Vatke (Campanulaceae), CAN
Chelsea: 711. Campanula Canariensis; Atriplicis [...] (RAND [66]: 144,
BM000810169); 16. Campanula canariensis; Atriplicis [...] (RAND [68]: 40).- Clif-ford:
10. Campanula foliis hastatis [...] (LINNAEUS [41]: 65, t. 8).- Notes:
PLUKENET [62] appeared to base his description for this taxon on material grown the
Royal Gardens of Hampton Court. LINNAEUS [42] (based on VAN ROYEN [87]) re-ported
this taxon for the Botanic Garden of Leiden by 1740. AITON [2] (based on
PLUKENET [62]) reported this species for the Royal Gardens of Hampton Court by 1696.
128
HARVEY [32] indicated that this species was cultivated in the nursery of Henry Wise by
1696.
Capsicum annuum L. (Solanaceae), CUL
Clifford: 6. SoUmum caulc inenui [...] (LINNAEUS [41]: 61, BM000558033).- Notes:
LINNAEUS [40] believed that the material grown at the Clifford's Hartekamp Gardens
came from Madeira.
Cedronella canariensis (L.) Webb & Berth. (Lamiaceae), MAC (Azores, Canaries,
Madeira)
Amsterdam: Cedronella canariensis viscosa [...] (J. COMMELIN [16]: 81. t. 41; C.
COMMELIN [10]: 8; Moninckx Atlas 3, t. 39 [Jan Moninckx (1686-1700)]).- Chelsea:
66 Trifoliate Canary Mint [...] (PETIVER [55]: 418); 2. Dracocephalon Canariense tri-phvllon
[...] (RAND [68]: 70); 1366 Dracocephalon Canariense triphyllon [...]
(WILMER [95]: 404. BM000810167).- Clifford: 5. Dracocephalum floribus spicatis
[...] (LINNAEUS [41]: 308. BM000646035).- Notes: J. COMMELIN [16] stated that
this species had been in culti\ ation for some years at the Botanic Garden of Amsterdam.
LINNAEUS [41-42] (based on BOERHAAVE [6]. MORISON [52]. and VOLCK-AMERUS
[89]) reported this species for the Oxford Botanic Garden by 1699. for gardens
of Nuremberg by 1 700. and for the Botanic Garden of Leiden by 1 720. AITON [3] (based
on a manuscript located in the Sloane's collection of the British Librarv' [reference: MS
3343]) reported this species for the gardens of the Duchess of Beaufort by 1697. HALLI-WELL
[31] suggested that this species was already in cultivation in England by 1578.
Convolvulus canariensis L. (Convoh ulaceae), CAN
Amsterdam: Convolvulus canariensis sempenirens [...] (J. COMMELIN [16]: 101. t. 51:
Moninckx Atlas 3. t. 49 [Jan Moninckx (1686-1700)]).- Chelsea: 67 Evergreen Canar\
Bindweed [...] (PETIVER [55]: 418); 363. Convolvulus Canariensis; longioribus [...]
(SLOANE & RAND [79]: 2. BM000810168); 9. Convolvulus Canariensis, sempenivens
[...] (RAND [68]: 57).- Clifford: 4. Convolvulus foliis cordatis [...] (LINNAEUS [41]:
67).- Notes: LINNAEUS [42] (based on VAN ROYEN [87]) listed this taxon for the
Botanic Garden of Leiden by 1740. AITON [2] (based on material located the Sloane's
Herbarium at BM [reference: HS 139. f. 63]) reported the species for the gardens of the
Duchess of Beaufort by 1690.
Dracaena draco (L.) L. subsp. draco (Asparagaceae), MAC (Azores, Canaries, Cape
Verde, and Madeira)
Amsterdam: Palmapruniferafoliis [...] (J. COMMELIN [14]: 260; J. COMMELIN [17]:
260); 361. Sanguis draconis Officin. [...] (J. COMMELIN [18]: 86).- Chelsea: 177.
Draco Arbor [...] (RAND [64]: 32); 148. Sanguis draconis: officin. [...] (MILLER [48]:
148); 8. Palma. Yuccaefoliis [...] (RAND [68]: 150).- Notes: As early as 1494. a speci-men
of the dragon-tree, a species then known only from the Macaronesian islands, was cul-tivated
in the monastery of the Holy Trinity in Lisbon (DE PAZ-SANCHEZ [21]). with
another one reported in the grounds of the Convent of Our Lady of Grace, in the same
city (CLUSIUS [8]). LINNAEUS [43] (based on BOERHAAVE [6] and VAN ROYEN
[87]) listed this taxon for the Botanic Garden of Leiden by 1720 and 1740.
Euphorbia balsamifera Aiton subsp. balsamifera (Euphorbiaceae), NAT
Amsterdam: Tithymalus canariensis frutescens [...] (J. COMMELIN [16]: 209. t. 105;
C. COMMELIN [10]: 24; Moninckx Atlas 5, t. 32 [Maria Moninckx (1699-1700)]).-
NoTES: J. COMMELIN [16] stated that this species was introduced to the Botanic Garden
of Amsterdam by Francois de Vroede in 1699.
129
Euphorbia canariensis L., CAN
Amsterdam: Tithymalus aizoides fruticosus [...] (J. COMMELIN [16]: 207, t. 204; C.
COMMELIN [10]: 11, 20; Moninckx Atlas 5, t. 31 [Maria Moninckx (1686-1700)]).-
Chelsea: 170. Euphorbium; officin Euphorbium; [...] (MILLER [48]: 42); 5. Eiiphor-bium
tetragonum, & pentagonum [...] (RAND [68]: 75).- Clifford: 2. Euphorbia ac-uleata
quadrangularis [...] (LINNAEUS [41]: 196).- Notes: LINNAEUS [41-42] (based
on BOERHAAVE [6] and VAN ROYEN [87]) listed this taxon for the Botanic Garden of
Leiden by 1720 and 1740. AITON [3] (based on a manuscript located in the Sloane's col-lection
of the British Library [reference: MS 3357, f 21]) reported the species for the gar-dens
of the Duchess of Beaufort by 1697.
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (Apiaceae), NAT (Azores, Canaries, Madeira, Cape Verde)
Chelsea: 5. Foeniculum Azoricum. Pluk. Aim. (RAND [68]: 77).
Hypericum canariense L. (Hypericaceae), MAC (Canaries and Madeira)
Amsterdam: Hypericum frutescens canariense [...] (J. COMMELIN [16]: 135, t. 68;
Moninckx Atlas 4, t. 16 [unknown artist (1686-1700)]).- Clifford: 9. Hypericumfloribus
trigynis [...] (LINNAEUS [41]: 381, BM000646815).- Notes: LINNAEUS [41-42]
(based on BOERHAAVE [6] and VAN ROYEN [87]) listed this taxon for the Botanic
Garden of Leiden by 1720 and 1740. AITON [4] (based on manuscripts located in the
Sloane's collection of the British Library [reference: MS 525, and MS 3343]) reported
this species for the gardens of the Duchess of Beaufort by 1699.
Isoplexis canariensis (L.) J.W. Loudon (Scrophulariaceae), CAN
Amsterdam: Digitalis acanthoides canariensis [...] (J. COMMELIN [16]: 105, t. 53;
Moninckx Atlas 3, t. 51 [Jan Moninckx (1686-1700)]).- Chelsea: 7. Digitalis, Ca-nariensis;
acanthoides [...] (RAND [68]: 69).- Clifford: 2. Gesneria foliis lanceolatis
[...] (LINNAEUS [41]: 318, BM000646182).- Notes: MILLER [51] indicated (without
giving a particular date) that this species was first grown in England at the gardens of the
Bishop of London at Fulham and also at the gardens of Hampton Court. LINNAEUS [41]
(based on BOERHAAVE [6]) listed this taxon for the Botanic Garden of Leiden by 1720.
AITON [3] (based on a manuscript located in the Sloane's collection of the British Li-brary
[reference: MS 3358, f 20]) reported this species for the gardens of the Duchess of
Beaufort by 1698.
Jasminum azoricum L. (Oleaceae), MAD
Amsterdam: yfl5w//7i/w ^zom/m trifoliatum [...] (J. COMMELIN [15]: 159, t. 82; Mon-inckx
Atlas 2, t. 18 [Jan Moninckx ( 1 686- 1 690)]); Jasminum Azoricumflore [. . .] (J. COM-MELIN
[17]: 172).- Chelsea: 564. Jasminum Azoricum, trifolium [...] (RAND [65]: 2,
BM000810172); 6. Jasminum Azoricum, trifoliatum [...] (RAND [68]: 103).- Clifford:
2. Jasminum foliis oppositis [...] (LINNAEUS [41]: 5, BM000557520; BM000557520).-
Notes: J. COMMELIN [15] reported the species from the Azores Islands; however, this
taxon is not known to occur on these islands. In addition, he stated that the species was cul-tivated
in the Hortus Beaumontianus (Holland) by 1693. LINNAEUS [41] listed this
species for Azores, Madeira, Sri Lanka, and India. LINNAEUS [41-42] (based on BOER-HAAVE
[6], HERMANNUS [34], and VAN ROYEN [87]) listed this taxon for the Botanic
Garden of Leiden by 1687, 1720 and 1740. AITON [2] (based on MILLER [49]) reported
this species for the Royal Gardens of Hampton Court by 1731.
Jasminum odoratissimum L., MAC (Canaries and Madeira)
Clifford: 4. Jasminumfoliis alternis [. . .] (LINNAEUS [41]: 5, BM000557523).- Notes:
LINNAEUS [41] (based on BOERHAAVE [6]) listed this taxon for the Botanic Garden
130
of Leiden by 1 720. AITON [2] (based on MILLER [49]) reported this species for the Royal
Gardens of Hampton Court by 1730. HARVEY [32] indicated that this species was culti-vated
in the nurser\' of George Rickets by 1688.
Justicia hyssopifolia L. (.Acanthaceae), CAN
Amsterdam: Moninckx Atlas 8, t. 38 [Maria Moninck.x (1686-1706)].- Clifford: 2. Jus-ticia
foliis liueah-lcmceolatis [...] (LINNAEUS [41]: 10, BM000557558).- Notes:
PLUKENET [62] based his polynomial description for this taxon on material grown by
George London at the Royal Gardens under William III. LINNAEUS [41-42] (based on
BOERHAAVE [6], MORISON [52], and VAN ROYEN [87]) listed this ta.xon for the Ox-ford
Botanic Garden by 1699 and for the Botanic Garden of Leiden by 1720 and 1740.
AITON [2] (based on MILLER [50]) reported this species for the Royal Gardens of Hamp-ton
Court by 1690.
Kleinia neriifolia Haw. (Asteraceae), CAN
Clifford: 1 . Kleinia foliis lanceolatis [. . .] (LINNAEUS [41]: 395).- Notes: LINNAEUS
[41] listed this species for the Canaries and the East Indies, and based on DILLENIUS [23]
he reported this species for the James Sherard's garden at Eltham (London) by 1732.
AITON [4] (also based on DILLENIUS [23]) reported this species for the gardens of James
Sherardby 1732.
Lavandula canariensis Mill, subsp. canariensis (Lamiaceae), CAN
Amsterd.am: Lavandula folio longiore [...] (C. COMMELIN [11]: 27, t. 27; Moninckx
Atlas 6. t. 43 [Jan Moninckx (1703-1705)]).- Chelsea: 6. Lavendula Canariensis: spica
[...] (RAND [68]: 111); 1475 Lavendula Canariensis, spica [...] (WILMER [96]: 397,
specimen not found).- Notes: According to WILMER [96] a specimen of "Lavandula Ca-nariensis"
from material cultivated at the Chelsea Physic Garden was sent from this gar-den
to the Royal Society under number "397"'; however, we were unable to locate this
specimen at BM. UPSON & ANDREWS [86] claimed that one of the specimens found in
the Sloane herbarium was the material sent to the Royal Society; howe\"er. based on the
BM records none of the specimens received by this society from Chelsea Physic Garden
was filed in the Sloane herbarium. We believe that the polynomial descriptions pro\ ided
by RAND [68] and WILNER [95] refer to this taxon as according to MILLER [51] and
UPSON & ANDREWS [86] L. canariensis was already in cultivation in the garden of
Bishop Compton (1632-1713) who was Bishop of London in Fulham by 1675.
Lotusjacobaeus L. (Fabaceae), CAP
Amsterdam: Lotus angustifolia flore [...] (J. COMMELIN [16]: 165, t. 83; Moninckx
Atlas 4, t. 33 [Jan Moninckx (1699)]).- Clifford: 7. Lotus caule herbaceo [...] (LIN-NAEUS
[41]: 372. BM000646728).- Notes: J. COMMELIN [16] indicated that seeds of
this species were sent in 1699 by W. A. der Stel (1664-1733) when he visited the island of
Santiago (Cape Verde Archipelago) during his trip to South Africa, w here he was appointed
Governor of the Cape Colony. LINNAEUS [42] (based on VAN ROYEN [87]) list this
taxon for the Botanic Garden of Leiden by 1740. AITON [4] (based on material located
the Sloane's Herbarium at BM [reference: HS 134, f 41]) reported this species in the gar-dens
of the Duchess of Beaufort by 1714.
Persea iitdica (L.) Spreng. (Lauraceae), MAC (Azores, Canaries, and Madeira)
Clifford: 4. Laurus foliis lanceolatis [. . .] (LINNAEUS [41]: 154. BM000558698).- Notes:
LINNAEUS [41] reported this species only for the New World. LINNAEUS [41] (based on
BOERHAAVE [6]) reported this species for the Botanic Garden of Leiden by 1720. Ac-cording
to AITON [3] (based on REA [69]), the species was cultivated in England by 1665.
131
Phyllis nobla L. (Rubiaceae), MAC (Canaries, and Madeira)
Chelsea: Canary Simpla-nobla (PETIVER [57]: 215); 4. Bupleuroides; quae Simpla-
Nobla [...] (RAND [68]: 37).- Clifford: 1. Phyllis. Bupleuroides, quae Simpla nobla
[...] (LINNAEUS [41]: 87, BM000558215).- Notes: LINNAEUS [40-41] (based on
BOERHAAVE [6], DILLENIUS [23], VAN ROYEN [87], and WALTHERUS [90]) listed
this taxon for the Botanic Garden of Leiden by 1720 and 1740, for the gardens of A. F.
Waltherus in Leipzig by 1735, and for the James Sherard's garden at Eltham by 1732.
AITON [2] (based on a manuscript located in the Sloane's collection of the British Li-brary
[reference: MS 3343]) reported this species for the gardens of the Duchess of Beau-fort
by 1699.
Rumex lunaria L. (Polygonaceae), CAN
Chelsea: 10 Canary Tree Sorrel [...] (PETIVER [57]: 180); \2. Acetosa Arborescens, ex
Insulis [...] (RAND [68]: 5); 1102. Acetosa arborescens, ex Insulis [...] (MILLER [47]:
213, BM000810170);.- Clifford: 8. Rumexfloribus hermaphroditis [...] (LINNAEUS
[41]: 139, BM000558578).- Notes: LINNAEUS [41-42] (based on BOERHAAVE [6]
and VAN ROYEN [87]) listed this taxon for the Botanic Garden of Leiden by 1720 and
1740. AITON [2] (based on a manuscript located in the Sloane's collection of the British
Library [reference: MS 3358]) reported this species for the gardens of the Duchess of
Beaufort by 1698.
Salvia canariensis L. var. canariensis (Lamiaceae), CAN
Chelsea: 110. Canary Clary. Ray [. . .] (PETIVER [60]: 358).- Clifford: 12. Salviafoliis
hastato-triangularibus [. . .] (LINNAEUS [41]: 13, BM000557604).- Notes: LINNAEUS
[41-42] (based on BOERHAAVE [6], MORISON [52], and VAN ROYEN [87]) listed this
taxon for for the Oxford Botanic Garden by 1 699 and for the Botanic Garden of Leiden
by 1720 and 1740. AITON [2] (based on a manuscript located in the Sloane's collection
of the British Library [reference: MS 3357, f. 62]) reported this species for the gardens of
the Duchess of Beaufort by 1697.
Semele androgyna (L.) Kunth (Asparagaceae), MAC (Canaries, and Madeira)
Chelsea: Palma Horse-tongue [...] (PETIVER [57]: 199).- Clifford: 4. Ruscus foliis
margine [...] (LINNAEUS [41]: 466, BM000647527).- Notes: LINNAEUS [41-42]
(based on DILLENIUS [23]) listed this taxon for the James Sherard's garden at Eltham by
1732. AITON [4] (based on PETIVER [57]) reported this species for the Royal Gardens
of Hampton Court by 1713.
Sideritis canariensis L. (Lamiaceae), CAN
Amsterdam: Stachys canariensis, frutescens [. . .] (J. COMMELIN [16]: 197, t. 99; Mon-inckx
Atlas 4, t. 50 [Jan Moninckx (1686-1700)]).- Chelsea: 111. White Canary Hore-hound
[. . .] (PETIVER, [60]: 358); 1 1 . Stachys Canariensis, frutescens [. . .] (RAND [68]:
190); 1092 Stachys Canariensis frutescens [...] (MILLER [46]: 423, BM000810165).-
Clifford: 5. Stachys fruticosa foliis [...] (LINNAEUS [41]: 310, BM000646052).-
NOTES: LINNAEUS [41] (based on BOERHAAVE [6] and MORISON [52]) listed this
taxon for the Oxford Botanic Garden by 1699 and for the Botanic Garden of Leiden by
1720. AITON [3] (based on a manuscript located in the Sloane's collection of the British
Library [reference: MS 3357, f. 67]) reported the species for the gardens of the Duchess
of Beaufort by 1697. HALLIWELL [31] indicated that this species was already in cuhi-vation
in the Botanic Garden of Oxford by 1658.
Solanum pseudocapsicum L. (Solanaceae), INT
Chelsea: 54. Cherry Nightshade Ray [...] (PETIVER [59]: 272).
132
Teline canariensis (L.) Webb & Berth. (Fabaceae), CAN
Amsterdam: Cytisus canariensis sempervirens [...] (J. COMMELIN [16]: 103, t. 52;
Moninckx Atlas 3, t. 50 [Maria Moninckx (1686-1699)]).- Chelsea: Yellow Canary
Cytisus [...] (PETIVER [55]: 419); 6. Cytisus Canariensis, microplnilos [...] (RAND
[68]: 67); 1465 Cytisus Canariens. microphyllos [...] (WILMER [96]: 397.
BM000810164).- Clifford: 6. Genista foliis ternatis. (LINNAEUS [41]: 355.
BM000646557).- Notes: LINNAEUS [44] (based on VAN ROYEN [87]) listed this taxon
for the Botanic Garden of Leiden by 1 740. AITON [4] (based on TRADESCANT [85]) re-ported
this species for the gardens of John Tradescant by 1656.
3. DISCUSSION
3.1. Macaronesian plants grown in the botanic gardens
A total of 29 taxa from the Macaronesian islands were cultivated in at least one of
these three gardens. Two of them are non-native species from the New World including
one weed {Solanum pseudocapsicum) and the cultivated pepper {Capsicum annuum). There
are three native taxa that also occur in the mainland. One of them, Foeniculum vulgare has
a widespread cosmopolitan distribution, although it is originally from the Old World. The
second one, Aizoon canariense. also occurs through the Mediterranean Basin. Africa, and
the Middle East reaching India and Australia. The third taxon. Euphorbia balsam ifera
subsp. balsamifera is also found in Morocco, Mauritania, and Senegal. The rest of the taxa
are endemics in at least one of the Macaronesian archipelago. There is a single endemic
from Madeira {i.Q.^Jasminum azoricum) and Cape Verde {Lotus jacobaeus). Fifteen of the
species are Canary Island endemics and the rest of the taxa (i.e.. Cedrouella canariensis.
Dracaena draco subsp. draco. Hypericum canariense, Jasminum odoratissimum. Persea
indica, Phyllis nobla, and Semele androgyna) are endemic to more than one Macaronesian
archipelago.
Only two catalogues from the Botanic Garden on Amsterdam (i.e.. CORNELIl [19];
SNIPPENDAEL [80]) and three of the relevant publications listing material grown at Chelsea
Physic Garden [i.e., PETIVER [54, 56, 58] did not include any plants from the Macarone-sian
Islands. Likewise the unpublished British Library manuscript that records those plants
found at Chelsea Physic Garden by 1 706 does not have any reference for Macaronesian ma-terial
either.
Among the 29 taxa.recorded in our study only seven were cultivated in a single botanic
garden, 13 of them were grown in two of these gardens, and the remaining nine were listed
for all three gardens. With 24 taxa, the Clifford's Hartekamp Gardens had the highest num-ber
of taxa from Macaronesia whereas the Botanic Garden ofAmsterdam reported the lowest
number (i.e., 1 5 taxa) of collections from this region. The publications from the Chelsea Physic
Garden listed 21 taxa as collected in the Macaronesian Islands.
It is noteworthy that the vast majority of the native/endemic taxa grown in these three
gardens were also reported in cultivation in other gardens from England. Germany, and the
Netherlands. Interestingly, we did not fmd reports for these taxa in any botanical collections
from the rest of Europe. Euphorbia balsamifera subsp. balsamifera (listed for the Botanic
Garden of Amsterdam) was the only taxon that was not reported for any in other European
gardens.
133
All available records show Dracaena draco as the earliest cultivated Macaronesian
species in Europe. This species and its East African relatives (primarily D. cinnabari Balf. f.)
produce a sap that is the source of "Dragon's Blood" an ancient medicine with ample utiliza-tion
in the Western culture and that also has been used as coloring and varnishing material (re-viewed
by GUPTA et al. [30] and SAnCHEZ-PINTO & ZARATE [70]). Species of this group
also have a strong mythological meaning as they were considered to be the "Dragon Trees"
that resulted from the red blood of the dragon Landon after it was killed by Hercules. Landon
was the hundred-headed dragon that guarded the Garden of Hesperides (GUPTA et al. [30]).
In addition, this species was a common element in several paintings depicting the Garden of
Eden between the 15"^ and 17^'^ centuries (reviewed by SANTOS-GUERRA [73]).
3.2. Sources for Macaronesian plants growing in the botanic gardens
In a previous study, FRANCISCO-ORTEGA & SANTOS-GUERRA [24] reported a
three folio manuscript from the Sloane's collection of the British Library listing a shipment
of seeds and trees from the Canary Islands made to Samuel Doody in 1694. It is known that
Samuel Doody (1656-1706) was apothecary and curator of the Chelsea Physic Garden of Lon-don
from 1693 until his death in 1706 (JACKSON [38]), although DESMOND [20] indicated
that he began his connection with the gardens in 1692. Therefore it is likely that this material
(68 accessions for 47 species, 23 of the taxa endemic to the Macaronesian region) was sent
to Doody in order to enlarge the living collections of Chelsea Physic Garden. However, only
seven of these species {i.e., ArgyTanthemumfrutesceiis, Cedronella canariensis. Convolvulus
canariensis, Phyllis nobla, Rumex lunaria. Salvia canaiiensis, and Sideritis canariensis) were
reported as cultivated in the earliest available lists of living material for Chelsea, published
by PETIVER [55, 57, 60] between 1710 and 1714. We are aware that there is a 16 year gap
between Petiver's publications and the time when this shipment was sent; therefore, we can-not
rule out that some of these earliest introductions did not survive the severe climatic con-ditions
of London.
In this previous study, FRANCISCO-ORTEGA & SANTOS-GUERRA [24] also in-dicated
that during the 16^*" and 17^^ centuries there were extensive commercial links between
England and the Canary Islands that involved trading companies such as the "Canary Com-pany".
It was suggested that some of the merchants engaged with these enterprises might have
facilitated the introduction of Macaronesian plants into the earliest gardens of England and the
rest of Europe (FRANCISCO-ORTEGA & SANTOS-GUERRA [24]). For instance, the ear-liest
reference for the potatoes in the New World is found in two shipments from the Canary
Islands to Belgium and France in 1567 and 1674, respectively (HAWKES & FRANCISCO-ORTEGA
[33]).
During these centuries the Macaronesian archipelagos were also a major hub for ves-sels
travelling from Europe to Asia, Africa and to the New World. Our study also shows that
occasional travelers who visited the islands during their journeys to other countries also played
a role in the early introduction of Macaronesian plants in European gardens. The best exam-ple
is provided by the Cape Verde endemic Lotusjacobaeus, reported by J. COMMELIN [16]
as introduced in the Netherlands by W. A. der Stel after his trip to South Africa. Our study
shows that the vast majority of the species grown in these three gardens were also widely cul-tivated
in other gardens by the late \T^ century and the middle of the 18'^ century supporting
that there was extensive exchange of plant material between several European gardens. We
know that Linnaeus travelled to England in 1736 and that during this trip he visited the Chelsea
134
Physic Gardens where he met the garden's chief botanist Phillip Miller (1691-1771) and ac-quired
material for the Clifford's Hartekamp Gardens (JARVIS [40]). We also know that he
was a close friend of the Prefect of the Botanic Garden of Leiden, the great Herman Boerhaave
(1668-1738) (VEENDORP & BAAS BECKING [88]). As highlighted by STEARN [82] and
WIJNANDS & HENIGER [93] there was an early network of botanists working in several
botanic gardens who clearly facilitated the exchange of plant material between these institutions.
3.3. The legacy of plant hunters
Because of a legendary history tied to ancient Roman and Greek accounts
(BLAZQUEZ MARTINEZ [5]) and their proximity to the European mainland the Mac-aronesian
Islands have been highly attractive for European naturalists and travelers (FRAN-CISCO-
ORTEGA et al. [27]). Therefore they were a focus for early plant hunters and
explorers. These plant collectors paved the way for contemporary botanists who visited the is-lands
after 1753. Among them there was the first official field botanist of the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew, Francis Masson (1751-1805) who stayed in the Azores, the Canaries and
Madeira between 1776 and 1779 and who sent plant material both to Linnaeus and his son
(FRANCISCO-ORTEGA et at. [26]). Masson's expedition is the first one focusing only on the
Macaronesian Islands with the aim of obtaining both herbarium specimens and material to be
cultivated at Kew. Indeed the three volumes of Hortus Kewensis listed over 98 species from
these archipelagos that were collected by Francis Masson (AITON [2-4]). In addition. Mas-son's
collections led to the description of over 118 Macaronesian endemics by distinguished
taxonomists such as William Aiton (1731-1793), Nicolaus J. Jacquin (1727-1817), Charles-
Louis L'Heritier (1746-1800), Johann H. F. Link (1767-1851), Linnaeus filius (1741-1783).
and Leopold von Buch (1774-1853) (FRANCISCO-ORTEGA et at. [26]).
Prior to Francis Masson there were three other documented expeditions that resulted
in plant hunting; however, these expeditions did not have Macaronesia as their final destina-tion.
They stopped in the islands during their journeys to Jamaica (Sloane in Madeira in 1687).
China [James Cuninghame (16657-1709) in La Palma in 1698], and around the world [Sir
Joseph Banks ( 1 743- 1 820) and Daniel Solander (1733-1 782) with James Cook ( 1 728- 1 779)
in Madeira in 1 768] (FRANCISCO-ORTEGA et al. [26], SANTOS-GUERRA et al. [74], SE-QUEIRA
et al. [76]). Furthermore, these expeditions did not have as a primary focus to col-lect
plant material to be cultivated in botanic gardens. We argue that the initial history of plant
exploration in the Macaronesian Islands can be divided into three main sequential stages or
phases: (1) the Merchant Phase in which we believe most of the collections were made by
those directly involved with trading between the archipelagos and Europe, (2) the Early Sci-entific
Phase in which a few pre-Linnaean botanists collected in the islands to enrich the early
European gardens, museum, and botanical institutions, and (3) the Linnaean-Masson Phase in
which Linnaeus established the foundations for modem plant systematics and Masson vis-ited
the Azores, Canaries, and Madeira. Indeed Linnaeus passed away during the journeys of
Masson to Macaronesia, and a condolence letter from Madeira (dated 12 December 1778)
was sent to Linnaeus filius by Masson (FRANCISCO-ORTEGA et at. [26]). This third phase
resulted in many valid taxonomic descriptions for Macaronesian endemics (see above).
Following Masson's steps many other famous European naturalists visited the islands
and collected plant material to enrich the collections of the most important European natural
history museums and botanical gardens and to provide the basis for floristic accounts and the
description of new taxa (HERRERA PIQUE [35]). Distinguished post-Masson botanists who
135
conducted extensive field studies in Macaronesia during tlie 18"" and 19"' centuries included
Auguste Broussonet ( 1 76 1 - 1 807), Andre Pierre Ledru ( 1 76 1 - 1 825), Alexander Von Humboldt
( 1 769- 1 859), Aime Bonpland ( 1 773- 1 858), Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent ( 1 778- 1 846),
Christen Smith (1785-1816), Philip-Barker Webb ( 1 793- 1 854), Jean-Marie Despreaux ( 1 794-
1843), Richard T. Lowe (1802-1874), Eugene Bourgeau (1813-1877), Otto Kuntze (1843-
1907), and Hermann Christ (1833-1933). The impact made by these expeditions in collecting
herbarium specimens is well known; however, there are still historical gaps concerning how
these expeditions enriched the living collections of the European botanic gardens and became
part of the horticulture trade.
Through his journeys along Latin America, Europe, and Asia the great Chilean poet
Pablo Neruda (1904-1973) found inspiration to write five extraordinary essays on the value
of poetry, the mysterious beauty of nature, and the dreams of those living in these regions
(NERUDA [53]). These works were compiled in a single book entitled ""Viajes'' (translated as
'^Journeys'') that was published in 1955. Later in 1971, when he received the Nobel Prize in
Literature, Neruda delivered a lecture in which he highlighted how these long journeys were
essential components for his writings. This Nobel lecture was entitled ''Hacia la Ciudad Es-plendida"
(translated as ''Towards the Splendid City") and a few lines of this text are found in
the preface of this paper.
Like Neruda, many plant explorers from the 1
8"" and 1
9'*' centuries where deeply in-spired
by the remote regions that they visited. They found plants with striking beauty and im-mense
landscapes harboring a mysterious flora. They witnessed the great value of plants for
different human societies, providing food and medicines (STEARN [81]). Many of these early
plant hunters (including seven of the 17 Linnaeus' Apostles) died during these journeys. The
most immediate legacy of these plant hunters was to bring herbarium specimens for their
botanical institutions; however, in many cases they also collected material that was eventu-ally
grown in private and public gardens. These gardens and their living collections perhaps
provide the strongest evidence of the lasting inspiration derived from these early expeditions.
4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We dedicate this study to Antonio Concepcion Perez for his continuous support to the
activities of the Museo de la Naturaleza y el Hombre of Tenerife and in recognition for his con-tagious
enthusiasm for the natural history of Macaronesia. Our searches for documents, im-ages,
and literature were possible thanks to the help of Anita Dijkstra, Joyce Edwards,
Monique Fasel, Ludmila Frankova, Reinout Havinga, Nancy Korber, Piet Kostense, Alice
Lemaire, Felix Lohmeier; Pia Ostlund, Eric Smets, Dicky van Donselaar, and Nadia Zouaq.
We are particularly grateful to Liz Thornton for her insights concerning relevant documents
pertinent to the early collections and history of Chelsea Physic Garden. Our gratitude to Paul
Simmons for sharing with us a reproduction of the portrait of Isaac Rand located at the Wor-shipful
Society of Apothecaries of London. Charlie Jarvis provided useful comments to an
early version of the manuscript and arranged for us to have bar-coding accession numbers for
specimens from Chelsea Physic Garden plants housed at the Natural History Museum of Lon-don
(BM). Mark Carine helped to locate herbarium specimens found in BM and relevant lit-erature.
This is contribution number 228 from the tropical biology program of Florida
International University. This study was supported by research funds from Fairchild Tropical
Botanic Garden.
136
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Table 1.- The 29 taxa from the Macaronesian Islands that were grown at the Botanic Garden of Amsterdam (coded
as Amsterdam), the Chelsea Physic Garden (coded as Chelsea), and the Clifford's Hartekamp Gardens (coded as
Clifford). Years when the taxa were reported are indicated.
Taxon Amsterdam Chelsea Clifford
Aeonlum canariense (L.) Webb & Berth. 1701 1739 1738
Aizoon canariense L. 1739 1738
Argyranthemunfi frutescens (L.) Sch. Bip.
subsp. frutescens
1710,1739 1738
Bosea yervamora L. 1739 1738
Bystropogon canariensis (L.) L. Her. var.
canarlensis
1701 1739 1738
Canarina canarlensis (L.) Vatke 1737,1739 1738
Capsicum annuum L. 1738
Cedronella canarlensis (L.) Webb & Berth. 1701,1703 1710,1739,1749 1738
Convolvulus canarlensis L. 1701 1710,1731,1739 1738
Dracaena draco (L.) L. subsp. draco 1689,1702,1724 1730,1739
Euphorbia balsamlfera Aiton subsp. balsannlfera 1701, 1703
Euphorbia canarlensis L. 1701,1703 1730,1739 1738
Foenlculum vulgare Mill. 1739
Hypericum canariense L. 1701 1738
Isoplexis canarlensis (L.) J.W. Loudon 1701 1739 1738
Jasmlnum azorlcum L. 1697,1702 1735,1739 1738
Jasmlnum odoratlsslmum L. 1738
Justlcia hyssopIfolla L. Between 1687
and 1706
1738
Klelnia nerllfolla Haw. 1738
Lavandula canarlensis Mill. cf. subsp. canarlensis 1706 1739,1751
Lotus jacobaeus L. 1701 1738
Persea Indica (L.) Spreng. 1738
Phyllis nobia L. 1713 1738
Humex lunarla L. 1713,1746 1738
Salvia canarlensis L. var. canarlensis 1714 1738
Semele androgyna (L.) Kunth 1713 1738
SIderltIs canarlensis L. 1701 1714,1739 1738
Solanum pseudocapslcum L. 1714
Tellne canarlensis (L.) Webb & Berth. 1701 1710,1739, 1751 1738
143