Ancient Libya, Arabia and the Sahara: some problems and uncertainties

              Mark MILBURN, Lanzarote
ANCIENT LIBY A, ARABIA AND THE SAHARA: SOME PROBLEMS AND
UNCER TAINTIES
1. Triliths
The following remarks stem from finding a trilith (Fig. 1) in March 1977, the first
ever seen by the writer, notwithstanding thousands of kilometres travelled in parts
of the Sahara since 1971. Situated in the upper reaches of the mighty Oued Timersoi
(Niger), its position is about 2025.7N 0705.0E; it is built at the foot of a small hill,
inside a re-entrant leading of from the east bank of the oued.
In recent years in the NW Tassili n'Ajjer, J. Kunz (personal communication) has
found a number of these curious monuments, although details are not to hand at the
time of writing (November 1977). Palmer (Feb 1932, 42) writes of the trilith as still
being an important cult object of veneration in the Saharan belt from the Upper
Niger eastwards to Lake Chad, citing the case of the installation of a Teda chief; an
important ceremonial act is said to be for him personally to lift a large flat stone and
to place it atop a trilith and above a sacred fire, prior to seating himself on the stone.
"Trilith" in this context is later explained by Palmer (June 1933, 96) as meaning
three stones, with or without a covering stone. A similar ceremony is also mentioned
as taking place in parts of Kunen when a youth assumes the mouth veil, called by
the Touareg T'imedr, and by the Teda, Funi. (Compare small "boxes" in Niger: see
Part III and fig. 6.)
In a reply to Palmer's note, Rodd (later Lord Rennell of Rodd: June 1932, 140)
illustrates triliths photographed by Meinertzhagen in the Hoggar region of Algeria,
although it has proved impossible, so far, to establish their location. He further
states that the triliths referred to by Palmer exist in Air (Niger), but are not very
common in the form of two pillars with a stone on top; the ordinary form consists
of three pillars set upright on the plan of an equilateral triangle, with the apex
directed towards Mecca and purporting to be Moslem places of prayer. He adds that
the usual form of a place of prayer is a rough semi-circle of small stones on the
ground, directed east. Also mentioned is "one large rectangular formal enclosure
with two upright pillar stones in the eastern face. The horizontal stone slab might
well have been one of many suitable pieces lying around." Both the above descrip­tions
could apply to stone arrangements noted during 1977 (Milburn, forthcoming,
types S. (a) and G. respectively.); and both types were seen in the same exact region
as a lang line of stones, extending rather more than 100 metres, with a rectangular
prayer niche roughly at the centre, a clear-cut ( though rather large) example of the
small Saharan "mosques," as illustrated by Lhote ( 1976) on the rear cover of his
book. The question does spring to mind here as to why three separate sorts of
Islamic places of prayer should exist ( ? ) in one smallish zone. Meanwhile no sugges­tion
of a cover stone was noted on one single example of the type G. complexes.
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The difficulties of obtaining information from Touareg, either due to their fear,
nowadays, of being thought not to be true Moslems (Mourgues, 1934) or because of
their lack of interest in anything not immediately connected with everyday life
( Gautier, 1907) are well-known. Such has been the writer's own experience in
respect of painted "bullseyes" on the ceilings of rock shelters at Oued Dabala and
Azagero (Fig. 3), also reported by R. Villemain (personal communication) at Mam­manet,
all three sites being in the Arlit region (Milburn, 1977 a, 7).
Some triliths of apparent antiquity, since Thamudic inscriptions adorn a number
of them, are noted by B. Thomas (1932, 126-129) in Arabia, particularly in Wadi
Dhaghaub and Wadi Dhikur. (The classical word "wadi" is seemingly used in
present-day Libya and Arabia, as opposed to the more colloquial "oued" employed
in Western Sahara: in A"ir, the Hausa "kori" is often used, sounding identical to the
Scots "corrie," which is thought to have exactly the same meaning.) Miss B. de Cardi
also gave a paper on cairns and trilithons in the Sharqiyeh, Oman, at the 1976
Seminar for Arabian Studies held in England.
The help of Mrs. D. Kirkbride-Helbaek (Denmark) and P. J. Parr (Institute of
Archaeology, London) is gratefully acknow ledged and it is good to know that a
considerable amount of material from Arabia has, or will be, published. One may cite
here the studies already carried out by de Cardi (1971), Kirkbride (1969), Masry
(1977) and Parr, Harding and Dayton (1970:1971), at the same time expressing the
hope that Saharan and Arabian archaeologists and typologists will not be slow in
comparing their respective finds.
To judge solely by the remarks of Mauny (1976a, 203), apparently deploring the
lack of global studies by Sahara prehistorians, due to lack of grave goods from stone
monuments, it does seem that they may, at the present time, have fallen somewhat
behind their industrious colleagues who operate in Arabia.
II. The keyhole tombs (monuments en trau de serrure) of central Sahara
Same time ago a suggestion was made ( Lhote, 196 7, 124) as to the similarity of
distribution zones of keyhole tombs ("MTS") and paintings of chariots drawn by
horses "at the flying galop." Although this almost certainly referred solely to the
confines of Algerian territory, paintings of the same type have occurred in the
Fezzan (Mori, 1965); it is thus surprising that, to date, we appear to have no record
of one single MTS in modern Libyan areas. P. Graziosi and F. Mori have each been
kind enough to em phasise the little that has been published on Libyan stone con­structions,
with the exception of large concentrations apparent in the works of
Daniels and Ziegert.
When in 19 5 7 R. Mauny wrote a plea for travellers to keep a sharp lookou t and to
record essential details, his request met with considerable success. Although it is
probably difficult these days to go far of the beaten track in the Fezzan, unless
involved in some large, static "expedition", there is absolutely nothing to stop the
willing tourist from keeping his eyes open while en route. Assuming that anyone at
all has troubled to read this far, then a rough plan of any stone edifice encoun­tered-
together with its dimensions, height and orentation-will be very gratefully
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received. Dimensions can be roughly obtained by counting the number of paces in a
given direction. Meanwhile a colour photograph of a classic MTS is shown on the
back cover of Hugot and Bruggmann ( 1976) as well as inside the book itself.
The object of these notes (Cf. Fig. 2.) is therefore to recount various aspects of
these graceful monuments, published and unpublished, in the hope of stimulating
interest in the chances of finding some in modern Libya. Apart from the abundant
literature available, the writer had in 19 7 6 the very considerable ad van tage of a
journey on foot, in the NW Tassili n'Ajjer, where he was able to study at first hand a
number of MTS, with special reference to siting, orientation and possible relation­ship
to other monuments.
Without pretending to possess details of each MTS cited in French literature, since
nomenclature is often confusing, a general idea of the apparent known limits of
geographical distribution is given below:-
NORTH Tahihaout 2629N 0612E approx. Reported by M. Vallet (1960,
238)
SOUTH
EAST
WEST
(i) Laouni
(ii) "NE part of
Adrar des
Ifoghas."
T-in Rada
To west(?) of 2030N
054 7E (Position of
well).
No positions given.
2342N 1_054E
Reported by M. Vallet (op.
cit.) to west of the main track
Tamanrasset to Agadez.
Reported by H. Lhote (1944,
70).
Reported by H. Lhote (1967,
123).
Oued Akefou, 2331N 0233E (= Reported by E. F. Gautier
"NE ofln Ziza." position ofln Ziza) (1908, 77).
References taken from Official Standard Names Gazetteer (1972) are underlined.
The writer feels disinclined to include a dubious example shown by Vallet (op. cit)
"30 km east of In Djezzal, Adrar des Ifoghas": apart from doubt expressed by Vallet
himself, the tomb is very far south indeed (although note those mentioned by Lhote
above, with no specific geographical positions) and its orientation is apparently
almest due south. As will be seen, the normal orientation is generally between NE
and SE. In any event, Maftre (1966, 280) considers that MTS are rare even in the
Hoggar: the main area is the Tassili n'Ajer.
A large concentration of MTS occurs in the Fadnoun district, southwards from
Illizi (2629N 0828E); this has been studied by Savary (1966) in a work devoted to
examining a quantity of MTS by means of aerial photographs. In the introduction,
G. Camps mentions the 158 examples used by the author to demonstrate that corri­dors
of the monuments-often visible from far off-were directed towards the rising
sun on the day of death of each occupant. lt would appear that then, as now, the
most frequent regional deaths occurred in the first two weeks of March (Savary,
1966, 6-7).
At the same time, Camps draws attention to certain analogies with European
types, such as dolmens with a corridor below a tumulus (Western Europe) and with
certain sacred wells of Sardinia; in this context one may cite those of Santa Cristina
and Santa Vittoria di Serri. While the orientation of Santa Vittoria is not comparable
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to that of MTS corridors, it is just worth looking at the plan of the Treasury of
Atreus and also at the dromos of various tombs of the necropolis at Salamis, Cyprus,
both for overall typology and orientation. The preoccupation with burials of hearses
and chariots, including war chariots, at Salamis, may indeed provide food for
thought in the context of Lhote's statement on the dispersion of MTS and chariot
paintings. (CF. Grinsell, 1975, 157-163.)
Gabriel ( 1970, 13) compares MTS with certain graves of Tibesti; see in particular
the small "beak "-reminiscent to that shown by his fig. 4. -which occurs at Amguid
in a MTS excavated by Voinot (1908, Pl. VIII.a.). This, however, does look as
though it has been added later to the MTS. lt is also tempting to wonder whether
the large tomb known as La Guancha, Grand Canary-notwithstanding its apparent
late dating-may have been built by people possessing some vague tradition of
Sardinian wells. A pattern for the re-examination of hallowed theories has now been
set by Camps ( 197 4, 506) and it may not be too late to hope that La Guancha may
one day be re-investigated, with full regard being paid to scientific dating aids
available at the time.
With regard to imperfect or unfinished examples of MTS, Lhote (1967, 118)
shows a specimen lacking a corridor in the region of Serouenout, seemingly indi­cating
that the corridor will thus have been the last item in the construction pro­gramme;
and in consequence ascribing a lesser degree of importance to the azimuths
of corridors. Y et the writer feels unable to agree that the same be true of another
MTS at Tin Abdallah (Reygasse, 1950, 59), where a pair of clear lines leave the main
tumulus, without ever arriving at the external eastern wall. Surely this indicates that
the orientation had already been decided upon, even though the monument were
never actually completed.
lt looks, from the picture, as though the tomb hat not been damaged by flooding,
a phenomenon frequently observed in 1976 around Gara Tesmad (2539N 0745E),
where there are also a couple of MTS that difer from the accepted pattern. The first
of these, at the ENE slope of the mountain, has no corridor and seemingly no
provision for one, being composed of a large tumulus, with two parallel bordering
walls on the west side and only one on the east; this latter effectively prevents an
uninterrupted stretch of "paving" between the tumulus and the far end of any
corridor, had one existed. A pair of small platform cairns (thanks are due to Miss
A. S. Henshall for this nomenclature) lie adjacent to the SW border. The second
example of an unusual MTS lies on the apparent southern slopes and its corridor
faces towards 17 5 °, as far as this can be determined from the stubby external
features. The overall effect is very like a true keyhole rim, the actual hole being
formed by the tumulus contained within the single continuous wall. Another freak
monument, probably only a badly-built one, lies along the route from In Salah
towards Amguid, on the western ascent towards Meksem el Djenoun, apparently at
about 2629N 0439E.
To deal next with seemingly-associated constructions, albeit of possibly difering
age, it has been impossible to avoid gaining the strong impression that a classic
tumulus upon a large circular "paved" platform ( "tumulus sur plateforme" or
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"TSP"), in the vicinity of one or more MTS, may prove to be the rule rather than
the exception. Luckily, from one viewpoint at least, the writer had forgotten the
words of Savary ( 1966, 26) to the efect that the TSP is probably the most common
edifice found in the Fadnoun. The TSP is apparently known to Savary as a "bazina a
dallage circulaire concentrique" and to Camps (1961, 161) as a "bazina a carapace."
Thus the journey was started with a completely open mind.
lt is not true that the reverse applies, namely that MTS will necessarily be found
close to TSP. There are lone TSP in the Hoggar, at least as far north as the Arak
Gorge (2518N 0345E), and even beyond, as noted during 1976 and 1977. But in
Western Ai'r only one was seen in trips lasting a total of some 30 days or more
(Milburn, 1976, 3).
About 170 indicated kilometres down the main track from Tamanrasset towards
Niger there were noted some half dozen, mostly on east-facing forward slopes and all
on the eastern side of the track, from which they are not visible. The examples
shown by Monod (1948, 16) seem diferent, although the notion of a tumulus,
surrounded by a proportionately-large platform, is clearly evident in Western Sahara
too, as it is in Grand Canary (Jimenez, 1971, 202). Indeed, Fleming (1972, 309) has
evoked a situation where the mound enclosing a megalithic tomb occupies an area
one hundred times greater than that occupied by the tomb itself. Can there be a
parallel here with the size of a platform in relation to the tumulus that stands upon
it or around which it is built? Note also the comments of Henshall (1963, 68 &
101.) on this latter possibility.
Fleming also cites the impressive visual appearance of round mounds, showing
that of Los Millares: if we disregard the forecourt, the general form is not unlike
that of a TSP. (Fleming, op. cit., 310). The only TSP possessed of a seeming
orientation yet known to the writer was seen at about 77 indicated kilometres south
of Tamanrasset on the track towards Niger; it lies to east of the track, some 100
metres from it and the tumulus alone is partly-visible from the west. A portion of
the platform seems to have been omitted ( or later removed? ), thus forming a
V-shaped missing segment whose approximate orientation is towards 140° . From
NW to SE the platform is some sixty paces diameter, or six times that of the
tumulus.
The following list shows those zones where TSP and MTS may possibly be posi­tioned
close to one another intentionally, although the question of which got there
first, in each case, must remain open:-
1. Track Arak-Tamanrasset 2418N 0458E MTS on E side: TSP on hill on W side.
2. Amguid
3. Edjeleh
4. Oued Adje, To north of
track.? 2 km from pass.
2626N 0522B
(General area)
2541N 0513B
(General area)
2548N 0747B
(General area)
About 500 metres apart.
At least 4 MTS visible from cliff-top.
1 TSP almost touching a MTS (= Voinot
area of operation, 1908.)
5 MTS and 2 TSP, mostly delapidated.
Very fine interior "paving" of some
MTS.
2 MTS: 1 TSP on adjacent ESE-facing
forward slope.
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5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Immatoda
Oued Akarcheshou
Gara Tesmad
Ridge running north to
south for 2 km south
of Gara Tesmad
Between Gara Tesmad
and Hassi Tanankort
2-3 km to NNE of
Hassi Tabankort
2545N0751E
2538N 0741E
( General area)
2539N 0745E
2543N 0746 E
(General area)
2550N 0742E
l large TSP: 1 small TSP near guelta. 1
MTS ca. 1 km to south.
1 TSP and 1 MTS close together, in front
of a major painted abri. 1 MTS say 60
metres away to 285° and a third MTS
ca. 400 metres away to 340° approx. A
second TSP lies within 150 metres of
the last MTS, bearing 230° from it.
2 TSP: 3 MTS: one unfinished MTS: 1
"pseudo" MTS.
From approx. south to north:- 1 MTS
on W slope: 2 ruined MTS or TSP on E
slope, opposite: 1 large V-shaped cairn
("heel-shaped cairn"), at foot of E
slope: 2 TSP.
1 MTS on flat ground: 1 TSP ca. 100
metres to north.
2 TSP & 1 MTS together on a small low
escarpment.
Thanks are due to J. Kunz for the chance to accompany his party in the area of
sites 4 to 10 above.
Reygasse (1950, 53) shows a TSP close to a larger MTS at Gara Tin Abdallah
(Tihodafne), Tassili n'Ajer. The question as to whether the platform is bordered by
sligh tly high er stones ( as some are, notably in Hoggar) or is totally flat and sanded­up,
is academic.
The overall favoured position of MTS and TSP, seen outside the Tassili n'Ajjer
proper, seems to be on an east-facing forward slope. Edjeleh provides an excellent
example and its MTS are visible from some kilometres away. Lone TSP often obey
the same rule, as do crescentic tombs ("croissants") and various "monuments a
bras," including V-shapes.
Alternately, especially in the Tassili n'Ajer zone visited with J. Kunz, MTS and
TSP may be on totally flat ground and even facing into a clif or hillside ( as at
Amguid), if indeed TSP can be said to face in any direction. In such positions both
types can be extremely dificult to pick out among a mass of stones, unless one has
approached to within a few metres distance. Thus the inevitable question must be
asked: why are such constructions situated, at times, so as to be visible from afar
and, at others, with seeming total disregard for such prominence? Does this refl.ect
changing religious requirements? Or construction by a diferent race? Here one
needs to assume-and it may be a dangerous assumption-that both types are the
work of one and the same people at any one period of their fl.oruit.
The largest MTS ever seen is thought to be that observed by Colonel Brenans in
the area south of Fadnoun, some 150 metres lang (Lhote, 1967, 122.); another of
118 metres length is reported by M. Chatry (1959, 250) at a position of 0536.30E
2602N. A good average size seems to be about 40 metres. The platform of the TSP
above-mentioned-some 60 paces diameter, measured from NW to SE-is the largest
known to the writer.
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Apart from later constructions built upon-or partly upon-TSP and MTS, demon­strating
the greater age of the two latter, some are built touching them or beside
them. A TSP observed in Hoggar by F. Trost (personal communication) had a cres­centic
cairn touching the platform on one side, seemingly at the east border. The
MTS excavated by Voinot at Amguid in 1908-seen inJanuary 1976-is very delapi­dated.
Possibly stones have also been later removed for twentieth century construc­tional
purposes nearby.
Turning to the sketch made by Voinot (Pl. VIII. fig. 2.), later additions probably
comprise 1) the crescent to south-east: 2) the two "arms" fitted to the tumulus at
the east end of the corridor: 3) the small tumulus to south-west of the main burial
tumulus of the MTS itself. Voinot notes further examples of the last feature else­where,
although the writer has seen nothing similar. The small "beak" tacked onto
the south-east margin of the main burial tumulus is probably also a later addition,
besides, as above-stated, recalling certain features of Tibesti graves (Gabriel, 1970. ).
The orientation of this particular MTS is 88
°
; that of two others adjacent is 105
°
and 85
°
, with lengths of around 60 and 45 paces. Torrential rain cut short observa­tions
and it was necessary to move fast towards Tamanrasset in order not to fall
behind with the programme.
A summary of excavations undertaken is given by Lhote (1967, 120) and results
are as discouraging and as inconclusive as might be expected some years ago. The
location of grave goods found is unstated and they are to be presumed lost. (Note
the remarks of Lhote, 1976, 138.). In autumn 1976 G. Camps informed the writer
that no MTS remains have yet been scientifically dated.
In conclusion it is necessary to lay the strongest possible emphasis on what is
unknown about these enigmatic constructions, their builders, their chronology and
their religious significance, rather than upon the little that is known. lt is thus to be
hoped that future research, especially in the Fezzan, by fully-qualified technicians,
may provide the information that to-day is so sadly lacking.
III. The "Garamantean" stelae of Niger and some thoughts on orientation
The complex monuments of Western Ai"r at which stelae occur have been briefly
mentioned (1977b, 147, type C.) and will be dealt with more fully in a future
publication (Milburn, forthcoming, type C.). Illustrations are given at figs. 2. and 3.
of the first-cited work.
These stelae (Figs. 4. and 5.) may be compared to those of the Fezzan (Daniels,
1970, 41 & fig. 9: Sergi, 1936, 3) in that they are flattish and rather thin. Their
most interesting feature, however, is that they are merely propped against the outer­most
border of the tomb, just as they have occurred in modern Libya, leaning
against the eastern side of squarish stepped monuments. These are sometimes incor­rectly
termed "chouchat" (singular: "choucha"). Camps (1961, 173) maintains that
the true choucha is found only in eastern Algeria, its name deriving from the local
"chechia" headdress, although the term has been adopted by French writers to
embrace these circular, drum-like structures throughout the whole Sahara.
One thing here is certain: one does not come upon such stelae partly buried in the
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ground, notwithstanding numerous other upright pillar-type stones of the region, on
which no detailed publication has seemingly been attempted. (Cf. Huard & Massip,
1967: Lhote, 1973: Milburn, 1977b, figs. 6. and 7.). Indeed, fig. 5 shows stelae and
towers positioned upon solid rock.
If these Niger monuments are contemporary with the lines of small accessory
towers (or lines of "autels"/"foyers") set a few metres to the east, in a straight or
curving line ( Fig. 5. )-and the two occur so of ten together that one cannot entertain
much doubt on this score-then they appear relatively young in comparison to other
types, notably the enigmatic Niger crescentic tombs ("crescents"). Sometimes they
are built very close to such crescents, or even set between the arms of a west-facing
specimen, where their towers will not interfere with the crescent. Such towers can,
however, cut right across earlier structures: at Mammanet in 1976 the southern
tower of a line of six was observed to be standing squarely upon the north "tail" of
an east-facing crescent, presumably built from material taken off it. And fig. 4.
shows a line of "autels" cutting across an earlier stone circle, formed of low slabs,
deeply-embedded in the ground and of unknown significance. lt would, additionally,
be useful to possess further details of "large conical rubble heaps," mentioned by
Thomas (1932, 126) close to Arabian triliths, and to which he attributes a sacrificial
significance.
Unfortunately, all such tombs seen to date have been opened, although French
literature appears mute upon the very existence of this type of structure: the towers
(and the smaller "autels" and "foyers") occur beside other monuments, over a wide
area, but are not thought to have yielded positive results in past excavations. Where
the towers are well-built conical specimens it may be tempting to suspect Touareg as
the culprits, although just how far back in time in anyone's guess. Such towers also
occur at Tit, near Tamanrasset, but are allied to chouchat and lack "Garamantean"
stelae.
Ziegert (1969, 56 & Taf. III A 1) ofers further ·grounds for speculation on a
possible connection between tombs of Fezzan and Niger. His "Umgang mit Bruch­steinen
gepflastert und durch schräggestellte ( ursprünglich gerade? ) Platten nach
außen abgegrenzt" at Germa appears somewhat similar to the paved area (Fig. 6.)
leading outwards to the single border of some Ai'r specimens, complete with their
stelae and line of towers. Only time will show and meanwhile it would be a pleasure
to indicate some tomb locations to any specialist contemplating serious excavation.
The question of orientation has caused much ink to flow in the past; the object
here is to add more fuel to the fire. The small "boxes" of stone slabs (Fig. 6. ),
tacked onto the west or south-west perimeter, are hitherto enigmatic. In 1976,
south-west was felt to be the commonest heading: resulting from this year's investi­gations,
however, west seems to predominate. Dare one call them triliths, formed of
3 uprights plus a "lid?"
lt is regretted that, as these notes go to press, J. Kunz has just kindly provided
brief verbal information about some further "boxes", apparently grouped together
in NW Tassili n'Ajer to form a kind of enclosure. Further details are not to hand.
Niches in a quantity of structures on Seal Island, Libya, face towards the south-
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west (Bates, 1914, 183). Had these been illustrated, additional to others of more
conventional orientation further on (1914, 247-248), less speculation as to possible
Libyan influence on tombs of Crete (Evans, 1928, 37) might have followed. While it
seems nowadays accepted (Camps, 1955, 195: Hood, 1971, 31) that the Seal Island
monuments will be later, further confusion has arisen from a possible printing error
(Evans, 1928, fig. 17b. ). This places at Seal Island a structure actually in the
Algerian Hodna, near M'sila, thus some 1500 kilometres distant from Seal Island. lt
was previously illustrated by Randall-Maclver and Wilken (1901, Pl. XV). But the
error has been faithfully reproduced at least as late as 1970.
Arnaud ( 1901, 66) apparently visited the identical M'sila site, where Camps
( 1961, 177) notes a difference between the reports of Arnaud and Randall-Maclver
and Wilken. The former writes of "concentric circles divided up into alveoli by rocks
running from the centre to the perimeter like the spokes of a wheel." Such a
description appears not to fit the un-numbered picture of Arnaud (1901, 69); but
the writer has observed a similar feature in a multi-bordered Niger tomb (Milburn,
1977b, 147, type C.). And its occurrence in two widely-separated zones may not be
mere chance.
At this point one may note the very diferent orientation of the passages of some
British Isles megalithic structures whose architecture suggests a relationship, as do
the available dates hitherto. At New Grange, Eire, the great Boyne passage-grave has
an entrance-passage sited in such a way as to allow the rising midwinter sun to
illuminate it; at the Scottish Balnuaran of Clava, the two cairn passages point to the
spot where midwinter sunset will have occurred about 3500 to 4000 years ago. In
this Clava context Henshall ( 1963, 28-29) has suggested the connection of death
and winter with midwinter sunset in the south-west; she has also mentioned the
predominating westerly headings of the Irish Wedge-shaped Gallery Graves. And the
heading of the passageway of the Stanydale Temple, Shetland, (Thom and Thom,
1977, 14) faces out towards the rising point of the sun at the Spring Equinox.
If the apparent suggestions of Calder (1949-50, 199 and 204: 1960-61, 30) as
to possible similarities of architecture between Maltese and Scottish monuments be
acceptable-such acceptance naturally being dependent on "diffusionist" or "non­diffusionist"
beliefs-apparent links between Skara Brae (Orkney) and Portugal in
prehistoric times allow one to surmise that travel between Malta and Shetland would
not have proved utterly impossible. Thus contact between Malta and Africa-or even
Shetland and Africa-will also have been feasible, especially if Saharan crescents and
heel-shaped cairns turn out-as seems more than likely-to be merely protohistoric.
The writer has not wished, in previous works, to seem to be insisting on a connec­tion
between monuments found in the northern European/Scottish seaways and in
Africa. Y et the very existence of heel-shaped cairns in Shetland and in the Sahara
(Milburn, 1977 c )-possessed of similarities of orientation, plan and prominence of
siting-is troubling to a degree. Here one may echo the wise words of that great
traveller, Lord Rennell, (1967, 221) on the importance of returning, revisiting and
re-examining, a procedure which applies equally to European spheres as to the
Sahara.
29
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IV Inscriptions of Libyco-berber type
lt would be presumptuous to pretend to be able to offer any solution to the
problem of decipherment of texts, including Tifinagh. This has been tackled by
various specialists and the dificulties are well-known (Galand, 1975a). Pending a
more detailed report, which it is hoped to attempt eventually, the aim here is to
underline one serious threat to future progress, namely the present apparent lack of
any international efforts to cooperate at any level whatever.
One expert is currently collecting material and may, one day, feel able to start
compiling a corpus. A second academic has kindly offered to store fresh material in
an archive. Both are clearly doing their utmost. Y et-in order to obtain the full
benefit of tourist cooperation-it remains to be decided-most urgently-in exactly
what manner inscriptions should be recorded, so as to be presented for storage, in a
uniform way and according to a standard procedure, still to be worked out by
multi-national specialists.
In an age where specialisation is more than ever the rule, it may be easy to level
accusations of insularity at those who do their best, at their own level and on their
own terrain. Y et cases of true insularity can and do occur, as shown by Engljähringer
and Kraml ( 1978 ). Their views are very clear indeed:-There has been little inter­national
team-work in the past.
Thus, in the interests of a possible contribution towards the solution of the final
problem, that of decipherment, the following list of more or less modern works is
offered below. lt is by no means comprehensive; yet all authors mentioned appear to
have concerned themselves, according to their various specialisations and in one
form or another, in unravelling the current impasse.
General: Basset (1948): Camps (forthcoming): Galand (1975a): Gostynski (1975):
Marcy (1956): Mauny (1954): Zöhrer (1939).
Adrar-n-Ifoghas (Mali): Mauny (1954 ): Zöhrer (1952-53 ).
Air (Niger): Lhote (1950): Mauny (1954 ): (See also Rodd [1938]).
Canary Islands: Alvarez (1964): Cuscoy and Galand (1975 ): Galand (1975a).
Central Sahara/Hoggar: Lhote (1944, 1962): Morabito (1976): (See also Reygasse
[1932]).
Libya: Brogan (1975): Daniels (1975): Ziegert (1969). (See also Beguinot [1935])
N. W. Sahara: Galand (1975b): Nowak and Ortner (1975).
Tassili n'Ajjer ( Algeria): Lajoux (1977).
Tibesti: Hagedorn ( 1966 ).
One final thought here (and it is easy to be wise after the event). The moment to
begin studying Tifinagh was surely at the turn of the century, shortly after which
changes in the manner of Touareg life rapidly ensured that women had less and less
time to devote to one of their traditional pastimes. ( Cf. Zöhrer, 19 39, 136). As
things now stand, there is a great deal of lost ground to be regained.
30
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Apart from those mentioned in the text, the considerable assistance afforded by the
following is gratefully acknowledged:-
J. A. Allan, Society for Libyan Studies, London: J. Alvarez Delgado, Santa Cruz de
Tenerife: David Britt, Liverpool: G. Camps, Aix-en-Provence: P. Delquie, Arlit:
L. Galand, Paris: W. J. G. Godwin, Lagos: W. Haigh, Lagos: P. Huard, Crest:
R. Mauny, Paris: R. W. B. Morris, Kilmacolm: Dr. and Mme. Jacques Petit, Arlit:
J. Rutherford, Christchurch, New Zealand: Hans Schlüter, Frankfurt am Main: Ernst
Schneider, Heimatmuseum, Gross-Gerau: Andre Simoneau, Nice: J. Spruytte,
Vinon-sur-Verdon: K. H. Striedter, Frobenius-Institut, Frankfurt am Main: Roland
Villemain, Arlit: R. and N. Wolf, Rodilhan.
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Im Rahmen der Reihe
DIE AFRIKANISCHEN FELSBILDER
sind bisher erschienen:
FROBENIUS, L. - Madsimu Dsangara (Südafrikanische Felsbilderchronik)
FROBENIUS, L. - Ekade Ektab (Die Felsbilder Fezzans)
FROBENIUS, L. und H. OBERMAIER - Hadschra Maktuba (Urzeitliche Felsbilder Kleinafrikas)
RESCH, W. F. E. - Die Felsbilder Nubiens
PAGER, H. - Ndedema. A documentation of the rock paintings of the Ndedema Gorge
NOWAK, H. und S. und D. ORTNER - Felsbilder der Spanischen Sahara
F. V AN NOTEN - Rock Art of the J ebel Uweinat
Weitere Bände in Vorbereitung - Prospekte auf Anforderung!
AKADEMISCHE DRUCK- u. VERLAGSANSTALT
GRAZ - AUSTRIA
35
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Fig. 1: A trilith of Oued Timersoi, Niger, (Foto J. Rutherford, Christchurch, New Zealand).
/ (
Fig. 2: A keyhole tomb (monument en trou de serrure). Often about 40 metres lang the corridor
faces roughly east. Such tombs are often visible from afar, especially when sited on an east-facing
forward slope.
36
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"'
'x-
•
• .f
'-"'-f.
'
' : '" ·􀀊􀩆
Fig. 3: Red, yellow and black "bullseyes" painted on the ceiling of an
abri in Western Air, Niger. Primitive animal designs among them recall
others seen in Mauritania (Aioun-el-Atrouss) in 1973 and come firmly
within the Arabo-Berber-Modern Group ofMauny( 1954 ). (Foto Milburn)
Fig. 4: In this Air picture, the scale lies across a stone circle, with the
RH end pointing north. Beyond it, a line of "autels" (low tower-like
stone piles) cut across the circle. In the middle distance is visible the
border of the parent tomb, with a number of stelae leaning against it.
(Foto Milburn)
© Del documento, los autores. Digitalización realizada por ULPGC. Biblioteca, 2017
Fig. 5: With the scale pointing north and set upon a southerly tower, in a curving line of some
dozen structures, some stelae are visible beyond. Their parent monument is out of sight to the left.
The flat stone in the right foreground appears to bear primitive engravings. Although such are
common in Western Air, they were not seen when the picture was taken, illustrating both the
dangers of being in a hurry and of working entirely alone. (Foto Milburn).
Fig. 6: An Air tomb with a paved area leading outwards to its single delapidated border, seen from
the west. The scale lies across a small "box", formed of three slabs set in the ground, whose cover­stone,
if any, has vanished. The stelae at the east border are not visible , being lower than the
tumulus. (Foto Milburn).
© Del documento, los autores. Digitalización realizada por ULPGC. Biblioteca, 2017
Fig. 7: A small pierced menhir standing before a choucha of Western
Air. The hole is aligned roughly north to south, its patina is light brown
and the scale is 20 cm lang. Compare the larger pierced menhir, cited
by Mauny (1976b, 175), found in the Rio de Oro zone ofWest Sahara.
(Foto Milburn)
Fig. 8: A horizontal Tifinagh inscription at Moradi, Niger. In four cases,
at the same site, an oval-shaped despression ( to north of the inscription,
in this picture) was placed to the Tifinagh characters. Any possible
connection remains unproven. (Foto Milburn)
© Del documento, los autores. Digitalización realizada por ULPGC. Biblioteca, 2017
40
Fig. 9: A small stone circle of Timerso"i, seen from the south. Some hundred metres
to Westward, David Britt found a fallen stone pillar beside a dry weil. On this pillar
were two Tifinagh inscriptions. A possibility exists that the pillar once formed part
of the circle. (Foto Milburn)
Fig. 10: A keyhole tomb of Gara Tesmad, Tassili n'Ajjer. The corridor faces away
from the camera: the monument is ca. 40 metres long. (Foto Milburn)
© Del documento, los autores. Digitalización realizada por ULPGC. Biblioteca, 2017